Comprehension

Adolescent readers also benefit from explicit instruction of story elements as the texts they read become more complex and may include more than one goal/problem and these are less explicitly stated. Caldwell, J.S., and Leslie, L. (2009). //Intervention Strategies to Follow Informal Reading Inventory Assessment,// 2nd ed. Boston. Pearson. pp.152-162 ||
 * < Topic ||< IF... ||< THEN... ||
 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students have difficulty retelling narrative texts, ||< focus on text structure.
 * What?** Both narrative and expository texts have a predictable structure. Narrative texts typically include a main character, a few minor characters, a setting, the major character’s goal, the problem of the story, and events that lead to the resolution of the story. Expository text structures tend to include description, sequence, compare and contrast, cause-effect, and problem-solution. When students retell what they have read, their retelling structure should match that of the text.
 * Why?** The skill of retelling used to measure student’s reading comprehension. Research shows that teaching students to identify text structure has improved the comprehension of less skilled readers. Studies also show that children learn the structure of narrative texts by being read to, but those not exposed to stories may need explicit instruction in the elements of a story. (This knowledge of narrative text structures should then be expanded to include the structures of expository and informational texts).
 * How?** For students who do not have prior knowledge of story elements, begin with a simple story with only a few characters, a clear goal/problem, and events that relate to meeting the goal/solving the problem.
 * Read the entire story.
 * Explain the purpose of learning story structure (stories have parts, and if you know the parts it is easier to understand and remember the story).
 * Teach that a __main character__ is the person/animal that the story is mainly about. They appear more often in the story than other characters.
 * Teach that the __setting__ is the time and place where the story takes place. Sometimes the setting is important to the story and other times it is not.
 * Teach that the __goal__ is what the character wants. (Begin by using stories with explicit goals).
 * Teach that the __problem__ is what is standing in the way of the character meeting their goal. (Teach problem on the same day as teaching about goal since they are interconnected).
 * Teach that __events__ are what happens in the story as the character is trying to meet their goal. (Many students recall detailed events, but will need ongoing practice and your demonstrations to learn to focus on events that lead to the resolution).
 * Teach that the __solution/resolution__ is whether or not the goal is achieved, or whether and how the problem is solved.
 * Differentiation:** Posters containing the story elements, and graphic organizers such as story maps, can help students focus on these elements, and comprehend the story better. It is important to note that different culture groups may have different story structures. Be aware that students may reorganize the structure to fit their cultural background.
 * Citation:**


 * < Topic ||< IF... ||< THEN... ||
 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students are having difficulty identifying main idea, ||< teach how to use a Main Idea Map.
 * What?** A main idea map is a graphic organizer that helps students identify or generate a main idea by first identifying the topic and then important details from the text. After thinking about the topic and gathering details students identify or generate a main idea statement.
 * Why?** Struggling readers often have difficulty identifying main idea, but can, most often, identify the topic. Additionally, reading passages do not always explicitly state the main idea, therefore requiring students to generate the main idea from the details they have read. Focusing on the topic allows students to connect the details, making it easier to generate or identify the main idea.
 * How?** After reading a selection of text, students identify the topic, often found in heading, and record that into their main idea map. Next, the student fills in the important and relevant details. Finally, the student uses the topic and details to generate or identify a main idea statement. It is suggested that teachers indicate the segments of text for the students to map, usually a single paragraph for younger or lower level texts, and longer sections for higher level texts. Teachers will want to model how to identify important details, and may want to fill in the map in the beginning so that students are focused on the ideas and not the writing.
 * Differentiation:** Adolescent readers are exposed to heavy vocabulary which may exasperate difficulties with identifying main idea. Students should be taught text structure so they can more readily identify the important content. Teachers and tutors should ask students to summarize after each segment of text and consistently use graphic organizers to show the relationships between key ideas.
 * Citation: **Caldwell, J.S., and Leslie, L. (2009). //Intervention Strategies to Follow Informal Reading Inventory Assessment,// 2nd ed. Boston. Pearson. pp.180-183 ||

Move from short segments to longer texts.
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 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students have difficulty answering comprehension questions, ||< teach Question Answer Relationships (QAR).
 * What?** Questions can be categorized according to where the answer can be found: In the Book or In My Head. In the Book questions are either found “Right There” (I can point to the answer in one place), or through a “Search and Find” (the answer is still in the text, but students need to put together different parts of the text to come up with the answer). Both types of In the Book questions are explicit in nature. In My Head questions are categorized as Author and Me and On My Own. These questions are inferential/implicit in nature. To answer an Author and Me questions, students need to put together what they read with what they know. To answer an On My Own question, students use their own knowledge or experience, and may not even need to read the text in order to answer.
 * Why?** Different question types require different types of thinking and responses. Some questions require students to look back at the text, some require inferences, and still others ask students to form an opinion. Some readers do not understand question stems and need to be explicitly taught those through the use of visual aids (a card, perhaps, with a picture of a person for //Who?// Questions). Understanding the nature of the question will help students effectively answer the question either through looking back at the text or through thinking on their own, while eliminating wasted time searching for answers that are not in the text.
 * How?** Make visual aids to illustrate the four question types as you use the outline below to introduce, model, and practice the QARs.
 * The teacher models by asking the question, giving the answer, providing the QAR label, and explaining what the label means (use the visual aid to help make the point). If it is a Right There, Think and Search, or Author and Me question, the teacher models how to locate the answer or the inference clue. If it is an On My Own question, the teacher models how to construct the response.
 * The teacher asks the students the question and provides both the answer and the label. The students provide the reasoning for the label by finding the answer or clue in the text or by explaining how the teacher may have arrived at an On My Own answer.
 * The teacher asks the students the questions and supplies the label. The students provide the answer and the rationale for the label by locating the answer or clues in the text. If the question is On My Own, they explain how they came up with the answer without reference to the text.
 * The teacher gives the students the question. The students provide the answer, the label, and rationale.
 * Differentiation:** As students become familiar with QARs, have them generate their own questions and have them identify their question type. ELL students will benefit from this instruction, especially when provided with visual aids to facilitate understanding of what the question stem is asking. For example, if it is a //When?// question, the teacher could provide a card with “when?” and a picture of a clock.
 * Citation: **Caldwell, J.S., and Leslie, L. (2009). //Intervention Strategies to Follow Informal Reading Inventory Assessment,// 2nd ed. Boston. Pearson. pp. 199-201 ||

1. Students meet with a partner. Each partner has a copy of the same text. 2. Partners make an agreement about how they will approach the text. They may choose to read chorally, trade off by paragraphs or headings, or read silently to a pre-determined stopping point. When they reach the stopping point, each partner needs to //Say Something// about the reading. 3. Partners return to Step 2 and select anothe rstopping point before reading on. (Once students learn the process and become comfortable with the expectation that everyone needs to //Say Something//, they can try the strategy in groups of three or four.)
 * <  ||< IF... ||< THEN... ||
 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students are not engaged in classroom discussions ||< use the "Say Something" strategy
 * What?** This strategy encourages all students to take part in a conversation about what has been read. Because so much of our learning is social in nature, this strategy allows students to learn from one another, while sharing what they have learned from, and how they feel, about a particular text.
 * Why?** When readers are routinely provided with a set of questions to answer or discussion stems to stimulate conversation, they become dependent on those structions. //Say Something// allows everyone to add to the conversation because all responses are welcome.
 * How?**
 * When students create their own posters identifying the strategy steps they use, they have a stronger sense of ownership and are more likely to carry the strategy to independence.
 * Differentiation:** For students who are unsure of how to begin a response, provide sentence stems for different response ideas...for example, for a Question response, they may begin with "I wonder" or "What if". For a Connection, they may begin with "This reminds me of." Provide a chart with different ideas for these, and Opinion and Reactions as well.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Citation: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hoyt, L. (2008). //Revisit, Reflect, Retell: Time-Tested Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension,// 2nd ed. Heinemann ||


 * < <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">Topic ||< <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">IF... ||< <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">THEN... ||
 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students have difficulty activating prior knowledge, ||< use probable passages to get students to think about what they already know about a concept.
 * What?** The teacher chooses seven to fifteen terms from the selection. Students categorize these words and then create a probable statement that predicts what the passage will be about.
 * Why?** Students with reading difficulties do not take the time to think about what they already know and how it relates to the text. Probable passages prepare student for reading by helping them activate prior knowledge and set purposes for reading.
 * How?**
 * After reading the selection, the teacher chooses seven to fifteen key words and phrases from the text.
 * Create a list of these words and phrases for students and give these lists to the students.
 * Review the words. Pronounce them and discuss meanings.
 * Have students categorize the words (characters, setting, events; who, what, when, where, why).
 * Have students make a prediction about the text.
 * After reading the selection with students, have them compare their predication with the text read. Have students rewrite their prediction to make it an accurate statement.
 * Differentiation:** ELL students, or those with difficulty learning vocabulary will need additional support to ensure that they are able to make meaningful connections and predictions. Provide visual aids, allow students to work in groups to categorize the words, and/or scaffold the lesson further by categorizing as a whole group until students are familiar with the process.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Citation: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Crawley, S. and Merritt, K. (2009). //Remediating Reading Difficulties,// 5th ed. Boston. McGraw-Hill. Pp.132-133 ||

Next, have students monitor their plan of action by asking themselves questions while they read, such as: Finally, have students evaluate how they did after they read by asking themselves questions, such as:
 * < <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">Topic ||< <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">IF... ||< <span style="background-color: #cfcece; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif;">THEN... ||
 * < **Comprehension** ||< Students are unaware of their lack of comprehension, ||< teach the metacognition process.
 * What?** Students are taught to develop a plan for their reading, to monitor their reading, and then to evaluate their reading.
 * Why?** Good readers think about what they read and are able to identify when comprehension breaks down. Students who are not metareaders are not aware of their lack of comprehension until they are asked questions about their reading. Helping students develop metacognition skills allows them to continually, and naturally gauge whether or not they are understanding the text. If comprehension breaks down, they are more equipped to implement fix-up strategies in order to understand.
 * How?** Help students formulate questions to guide their reading by facilitating a discussion on the process of reading. Explicitly teach students to develop a plan for their reading before they begin by asking questions such as:
 * What do I know about this topic?
 * What should I do first? (Look at pictures and captions? Read headings? Is there vocabulary that will confuse me?)
 * What is my purpose for reading?
 * How much time do I have to complete the assignment?
 * What should I do first?
 * Do I understand what I am reading?
 * What is important?
 * What can I do if I do not understand what I am reading?
 * What do I remember?
 * Do I have to do anything else to help me remember?
 * What can I do to help me remember?
 * What do I think about what I read?
 * Differentiation:** Students will need several opportunities to practice these skills so that they become a natural part of their reading process. Reinforcement activities such as brainstorming, semantic maps, and predicting content are proven activities for before reading. Journaling, forming images, and text-coding all help students monitor their comprehension. Peer discussions and organizing text material through mapping or outlines help students evaluate their understanding.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Citation: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Crawley, S. and Merritt, K. (2009). //Remediating Reading Difficulties,// 5th ed. Boston. McGraw-Hill. Pp.170-172 ||